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JOIWERY
Cabinet.
Making
Carpentry
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SHOP WORK
Joinery — Cabinet-Making — Carpentry
BT
HERMAN F. RUSCH
Director of Manual Training, Oldalioma City, OTcla.
CLAUD CARLTON CONWAY
Director of Iron Worlc, OJclahonm City High School, Oklahoma
Industrial Book & Equipment Company,
Indianapolis
191S
COPYRIGHT 1918 By
INDUSTRIAL BOOK & EQUIPMENT COMPANY, Indianapolis.
OCT -7 isifi; :
©CI.A503728
INDUSTRIAL AND VOCATIONAL TEXTS
BEING A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS DESIGNED FOR USE IN THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, COLLEGES AND ACADEMIES OFFERING COURSES OF INSTRUCTION IN THE TRADES, CRAFTS, WAGE-EARNING PURSUITS AND HOME ECONOMICS.
Edited By
Charles Kettleborough, Ph. D. Director, Indiana Legislative Bureau.
EDITOR'S PREFACE
The importance of industrial and vocational training has long since been recognized by the leading educators of the country and has now been formally installed in the public schools by the necessary stat- utory action of the federal government and most of the states. Its necessity has been emphasized and its introduction greatly facilitated by the acute exigencies produced by the World War. In the period of reconstruction and re-adjustment following the war, the amplification of courses of vocational instruction will doubtless be greatly accelerated. The complete and successful fruition of industrial training has been somewhat retarded by a lack of satisfactory scientific texts and other indispensable instrumentalities. In offering this series to the public, it is the confident belief of the editor that a rational approach to a knowledge of the fundamental principles and technique of the various trades, crafts and industrial pursuits will be afforded. This text, which is a treatise on shop work in its various aspects, has been compiled by Herman F. Rusch and Claud Carlton Conway. Both authors possess an accurate scientific knowledge of the principles of cabinet-making, carpentry and joinery, to which has been added extensive experience in the application of these principles to practical work, supplemented by a working knowledge of the most approved methods of imparting information to students. This treatise is put forth as the first of a series of texts dealing with industrial and vocational subjects in the confident belief that it will prove successful as a working manual in the subject
to which it is devoted.
The Editor.
AUTHORS' PREFACE
This book is the outgrowth of eighteen years of teaching in high schools and many more spent in practical construction work, in wood and iron, before our affiliation with industrial school work began. It consists of a compilation of such notes and lectures as we believe are important to the wood-worker. It is not intended in any way to sup- plant any of the work at the bench, but is designed to be used in connec- tion with bench work to enable the student to approach his work more intelligently. The book is not designed as a self-instructor, but as a student's text to be used by the teacher, just as he would use a text in mathematics. To secure the best results in the use of any text, supple- mentary work must be done, and wood-working is no exception to the rule.
The work presented in this text is so designed as to require two years, working two hours per day, in its completion, and is intended as a ready reference for the pupil and the teacher. It will be observed that in this text cabinet-making follows joinery. It is not necessary that cabinet work should be taken before carpentry. If the student so desires, he may take either cabinet-making or carpentry or both, after he has finished joinery. All joint exercises should be worked out by the teacher in class demonstrations.
The following brief, synoptical analysis may be of service to the teacher in the development of the subject as a whole.
Part I deals exclusively with the tools used in manual training shops, and with illustrations relative to the correct positions. Chapter III, Development of a Project, is worthy of careful analysis, since it indicates a general method of approach and order of work, and since the constructive work involves the use of so many methods. Care must be taken that too many tools are not presented to the pupil at once. Do not take up the use of a new tool for the sake of the tool but for the sake of the exercise which calls for the use of that particular tool.
Part II outlines a course in bench work, beginning with a series of joints which are standard the world over. Just how many joints the pupil shall make is a matter the teacher himself must determine. They are arranged in an order such that there is a gradual rise from the simpler to the more difficult and complex joints. This continuity should be followed in the presentation. In this series of joints, the fundamentals of all joint construction, whether they are in cabinet- making, in common carpentry, or in bridge building, will be found. The extended list of suggested projects for construction Should prove of
viii AUTHORS' PREFACE
great value to the instructor. Just enough is presented on each project to start the student in its development.
Part III consists of a series of talks which cover a wide field in practical tool usage, and which present many other things of vital im- portance to the artisan. It gives information which may be applied daily by the mechanic. These talks should be taken up, not necessarily in the order given, but in the order best suited to the teacher's own course. For example, a demonstration is given on how to sharpen a plane iron. It would naturally follow that this would be the proper time to present the talk on "Abrasives" ; or if the first lesson on sandpapering is before the class, the talk on "Sandpaper" should be given.
Part IV deals with miscellaneous topics as applied to shop work. The questions should be given in class, in oral recitations, so that each pupil may familarize himself with the technical terms. The problems may be assigned for work outside of recitation, and others may be substituted to embody certain features of the pupil's own exercise under construction.
The glossary is intended for the use of those who are not familiar with certain technical terms and phrases.
There is no special reason for numbering the Blue Prints as they are, beginning with 400. It will be observed that the number of illus- trative Figures is just under three hundred. To avoid duplication in numbering and to facilitate the location of the cuts, figures and draw- ings referred to were the only considerations observed in assigning numbers beginning with 400 to the Blue Prints. The letters B. P., which will be found at the end of the paragraphs in the chapter on Joinery, refer, of course, to the Blue Prints.
It is the belief of the authors that the working drawings, lectures, tool references, constructive information, suggested projects, questions and problems amply justify the publication of this book. If the book shall prove to be of material assistance in the unification of a course of study, embodying both practical and cultural training, it will have served its purpose. While we believe that the cultural side of industrial work should not be overlooked, yet "the search-light of practical expe- rience should illuminate the dark places of theory".
In conclusion, the authors wish to acknowledge their obligations and indebtedness to the many persons whose generous contributions and suggestions have aided materially in making possible the publica- tion of this work, and in particular to Helen Ferris, English critic, Oklahoma City High School, for valuable assistance in correcting and clarifying the English.
H. F. RuscH.
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. C. C. Conway.
June 14, 1918.
SHOP ETHICS AND REGULATIONS.
No other deparUiient of educational work offers a better chance for the student to learn to work harmoniotisly with others than the Industrial Department. The following suggestions will help those who try to observe the proper ethics of work shops.
Be prompt to begin work, and work faithfully until quitting time.
Check your tool list and make sure all your tools are in the proper place. In case of shortage^ report it at once to the instructor in charge, so you will not be held responsible for those missing.
Tools that are b^'oken by carelessness are to be replaced by the students breaking them.
Each student must furnish the "individual equipment."
Borrow no private tools and be neat and considerate with the tools for general use. Return the tools for general use to their special rack or cabinet as soon as you are through with them. Lock up your private tools only.
Be deliberate and thoughtful. Work for quality, not quantity.
At the close of the period, put your tools away, brush the shavings to the end of the bench, have everything neat and in good order, so you will not be called back when you leave.
Both enjoy and make a business of your work.
Demonstrations of the uses of the woodworking machinery will be made, but no students will be permitted to run any of the machines, except the tool grinder, unless it is- under the direct supervision of the instructor in charge.
The department is not responsible to any of the students in case of a breach of its regulations.
RESAWS.
It is easier to criticise than to create.
Courtesy costs little and buys much.
Confidence is the companion of success.
Many a man shortens his days by lengthening his nights.
To be successful, you nntst plan the start as well as the finish.
The devil tempts all men, but the idle man teinpts the devil.
If you resent authority, you stand a small chance of assuming it.
Inspiration is more liable to strike a busy man than an idle one.
Failure is not the worst thing in the world; the very worst is not to try.
It is a little farther around the corners of a square deal, but the road is better.
A bold front is a good thing only when anchored to a stiff back- hone.
Bad luck ruins one man in a hundred, good luck ruins the other ninety-nine.
The man of good judgvient is like a pin, his head prevents his going too far.
The nuan who thinks ahead of his work is a sure winner over the one who works ahead of his think.
True efficiency will come only to the man whose heart is in his work, and tuill never come with discontent.
CONTENTS
Editor's Preface _ . t
Authors' Preface __ _ vii
Shop Ethics and Regulations ix
Resaws ^ xi
Part I — Drawings, Equipment, Projects and Accidents.
CHAPTER I
Working Drawings Working Drawings — Scale — Blue Prints — Elevation — Lines — Plan of Work 3
CHAPTER II
Shop Equipment
Tool and Machine Equipment — Bench Design and Construction — ^Vises — Bench Stop — Bench Dog — Bench Hook — Drawing Board, Triangles and T-Square — Bench Brush — Bench Types, Equipment and Methods — Historic Measures — Stand- ard Yard — Metric Standard — Units — Linear Measure — Graduated Measuring Tools — Steel Square — Try Square — Rule— Marking Gauge — TrBevel — Level — Wing Divider or Compass — Sloyd Kiiife — ^Awl — Saws — Ripsaw — Use of Handsaw — Backsaw — Use of Backsaw — Planes— Bench Planes — Block Plane — Cabinet Scraper — Burnisher — Draw Knife — Spoke Shave — Cornering Tool — Squaring Stock — Wood Chisel — Tang and Socket Firmer Chisels — Chisel Handles — Chisel Blades — Sharpening Tools — Halving Joints — Concave Sur- faces— End Beveling — Beveling — Mortises — Circular Pieces — Mallets — Ham- mers— Driving Nails — Nail Sets — Pulling Nails — Carpenters' Pincers — Screw Drivers — Driving Screws — ^Vises — Hand Screws — Clamps — C-Clamps — Impro- vised Clamp — Use of Braces and Bits — Locating Centers — Securing Bored Stock — Boring Through — Depth Gauge — Ratchet — Tool Sharpening — Chisel Sharpening — Plane Iron Sharpening — Gouge Sharpening — Knife Sharpening — Cabinet Scraper Sharpening 5
CHAPTER HI . .
Development of a Project
Plans and Specifications — Construction of Rack — Parts — Laying Out the Back — Shaping the Back — The Support — The Arms — Cross Rail and Dowel — As- sembling— Finishing 33
CHAPTER IV
Machinery
Woodworking Machinery — Universal Saw Bench — Band Saw — Surfacer — Hand Planer and Jointer — Lathes — Trimmer — Oil Stone Edge Grinder — Machine Tools— Wrenches — Oiler — Pliers — Snips — Safe Guards 40
xiv CONTENTS
CHAPTEPt V
Accidents and Theik Treatment
Accidental Injuries— Wounds — Fractures — Bums and Scalds — Sprains , 46
Part II — Shop Work.
CHAPTER I JOINEBT
Joints — Joint Types — Classification; of Joints — Box Joints — Plain Butt Joints — Butt Joints, Blocked and Glued — Hopper Butt Joints — Rabbet Joints — Dove- tail Dado Joints — Plain Dado Joints — Multiple Dovetail Joints — Half Blind Dovetail Joints — Ledged Miter Joints — Miter and Butt Joints — Framing Joints — Butt Joints — Draw-Bolt Joints — Cross Lap Joints — Beveled Halving Joints — Lap-Dovetail Joints — Cogged Joints — Mortised and Tenou Joints — Blind Mortise and Tenon Joints — Doweled Mortise and Tenon Joints — Keyed Mortise and Tenon Joints — Open Mortise and Tenon Joints — Mortise and Tenon Joints with Relish— Trussed Mortise and Tenon Joints — Wedged Mor- tise and Tenon Joints — Fox-Tail Tenon Joints — Double Mortise and Tenon Joints — Single Dove-Tail Joints — Thrust Joints — Housed Brace Joints — Oblique Mortise and Tenon Joints — Bridle Joints — Scarf Joints — Splice Joints — Bird's Mouth Joints — Surface Joints — Plain Miter Joints — Splined Miter Joints — Stretcher Joints — Edge-to-Edge Joints — Stress — Tensional Stress — Compressional Stress— Transverse Stress — Computation of Stress 51
CHAPTER II
Cabinet Making as Applied in Fuenituee Consteuction
Furniture — Legs — Panel Leg — Mission Style Leg — Modified Mission Style Leg — French Leg — Turned and Fluted Leg — Back Legs — Rails — Straight Rails Curved Rails — Turned Rails — Chair Arms and Rockers — Shelving — Foot Boards — Panels and Paneling — Rabbeting — Panel Effects — Moulding — Batting Drawer Fronts — Tops — Cleating — Edging — Surfacing— Forms of Tops — As- sembling— Laying Tops — Designs — ^Ascertaining Cost — Specimen Bill 61
CHAPTER III
Caepentey
House Planning — Estimate of Cost — Procedure — Staking out for Foundation — Excavation — Foundation — Plates — Sills — Joists — Beams — Bridging — Studs — Floor Lining — Boxing — Cornice — Classification of Roofs — Rafters — Sheathing — Shingling — Comb-Boards — Window and Door Frames — Window Frames — Door Frames — Jambs — Grounds — Corner Strips — Siding — Base — Floor — Stairs — Pitch — Risers — Landing — Risers, Treads and Skirting Boards — Newel Posts, Hand Rails and Spindles — Well Hole — Porches — Scaffolding — Snapping Lines 75
CHAPTER IV
Beads and Mouldings
Beads — Mouldings — Crown Mouldings — Intermediate Mouldings — Base Mouldings —
Designation of Moulding Forms 89
CHAPTER V
Veneek and Its Application
Veneering — Sawed and Rotary Cut Veneer — Veneer and Solid Built Stock — Core Stock — Preparing Veneer — Veneering Regular and Irregular Surfaces — Veneer Designs — Veneering Cylinders and Cones — Panel Work Veneer 91
CONTENTS XV
Part III— Shop Talks.
CHAPTER I
Steel Square
Steel Square— Scales and Tables— Essex Board Measure— Octagon Scale— Angle Cuts for Polygons— Brace Measure— Rise of Rafters— Run of Rafters- Pitch of Rafters— Rafter Cuts— Hip Rafters— Plumb and Side Cuts— Valley Rafters— Jack and Cripple Rafters . 9'^
CHAPTER II
Saws
Special Handy Saw— Compass Saws— Scroll and Web Saws— Butcher Saws— Hack Saws- Band Saws— Circular Saws— Coping Saws— Cylinder Saws— Miter Box— Saw Construction- Material— Process of Manufacture— Tempering— Smithing— Grinding— Final Touches— Vanadium Saws— Saw Parts— Sharp- ening—Sharpening Rip Saws— Finishing— Sharpening a Two-Man Cross-Cut Saw— Sharpening Circular Saws— Sharpening Cut-ofC Saws— Sharpening Band Saws — History of Saw Sets— Use of Saw Sets 104
CHAPTER nil
Fastening Devices
Nails— Classification of Nails— Common Nails— Casing Nails— Finish Nails— Brads —Wrought Nails— Cut Nail&— Standard Gauges— Screws— Sizes of Screws— Kinds of Screws— Lag Screws— Corrugated Steel Fasteners— Tacks— Glue- Glue Material— Liquid Glue — Glue Joints 113
CHAPTER IV
Braces
Parts of Brace— Carpenters' Bit Brac^-Chuck— Ratchet— Cranked Handle Swing
— Cap — Reciprocating Drill — Breast Drills 119
CHAPTER V
Auger Bits
Boring Tools— Cutting Action— Manufacture — Head, Nib, Lip and Spur— Sizes of Auger Bits— Resharpening of Auger Bits— Shanks— Dowel and Ship Bits- Extension Bit— Irwin Bit— Russell Jennings Bit— Ford Bit— Fostner Bit- Expansion Bit— Gimlet Bit— Counter and Gauge Sinks— Reamers— Screw Drivers— Spoke Pointers, Fore Augers, Hollow Augers and Dowel Sharpeners 121
CHAPTER VI
Abrasives
Grindstones— Composition— Truing— Speed of Stones— Oil Stones— Artificial Stones
Emery Corundum — Carborundum — Speed of Artificial Stones 125
^ CHAPTER VII
Sandpaper
Details of Manufacture— Strength— Gluc^-Ingredients— Process of Manufacture
— Quality and Care — Steel Wool 128
xvi CONTENTS
CHAPTER VIII Files and Rasps
Historical — Hand Cut Files — Machinery Cut Files — Sizes and. Kinds — Features — Cuts — Length, Tang, Thickness and Kind — File Cleaners — Use of Files — Machine and Hand-made Files 131
CHAPTER IX
Facts Aboxjt Wood
Uses and Nature of Wood — Logging — Transportation — Sawmills — Timber — Milling — Seasoning — Warping and Cracking — Decay of Woods — Methods of Preser- vation— Strength of Timber — Gtrain— Markings — Board Measure — Tulip or Yellow Poplar — The White Ash — The Sugar Maple — American Elm — The Chestnut — The Hickory — Basswood — The American White Oak — Black Walnut — Western Red Cedar — Red Gum — The Redwoods — White Pine — The Longleaf Pine — The Shortleaf Pine — The Bald Cypress — Spruce — Douglas Fir— Birch 135
CHAPTER X
Facts About Brushes
Materials and Methods — Dusters and Artists' P.rushes — Bristles — Care of
Brushes 159
CHAPTER XI
Wood Finishing
I'urpose — Classes of Finishes — Exterior Finishes — Pigments — White Lead — Dutch Process — Carter Processi — Linseed Oil — Chinese Wood Oil — Colors — Color Shades — Composition — Application of Paint — Interior Finishes — Stains — Stain Shades — Fuming — Fillers — Use of Liquid Fillers — Use of Paste Fillers — Application of Fillers — Shellac — Use of Shellac — Turpentine — Varnishes — Rubbing Varnish — Pitting of Varnish — Cracking or Checking of Var- nish— Chilling of Varnish — Kauri Gum — Manilla Gum — Zanzibar Copal — Damar Gum — Filtering and Aging of Varnish — Uses of Varnish — Wax — ^Application of Interior Finishes — Natural Finish — Stains — Order of Appli- cation— Things to Remember 163
CHAPTER XII
Period Furniture
Furniture Types — Egyptian — Early European — Renaissance — Lines and Harmony — Jacobean — William and Mary — Queen Anne — Louis XIV. XV, and XVI — Chippendale — The Brothers Adam— Hepplewhite — Sheraton— The Empire Period — Mission Craft 174
Part IV — Questions, Problems, Glossary.
CHAPTER I
Questions . 187
CHAPTER II
Problems 190
CHAPTER III Glossary 194
PART I DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, PROJECTS AND ACCIDENTS
CHAPTER I WORKING DRAWINGS
Working Draivings. — Working drawings are exact projections or representations of objects, in whole or in part, usually reduced, but frequently enlarged, to a convenient scale ; they are used for the guidance and c<?nvenience of one person who is developing problems created by another.
Scale. — The term "scale", as used in mechanics, means the ratio or relative proportion of the size or linear dimensions of the parts of a drawing to the size or dimensions of the corresponding parts of the object represented. It will be seen quite readily that the working draw- ing of a house would be too large to be drawn on paper the actual size of the house, and that the details of a small machine so drawn would be too small to insure accuracy. Scales so drawn as to represent one- fourth and one-half of an inch to the foot, one-half size, one-fourth size, two and four times the size of the object are most commonly used.
Blue Prints. — In creating data, the working drawings or sketches become the plans, and the written descriptions of material, finishes and other necessary details are known as the specifications. In developing problems, it becomes necessary quite frequently to reproduce the plans. This is done by making prints which generally are shadows of the lines and characters of the original plans. In developing prints, a sensitive paper is placed in a printing frame behind the original drawing and exposed to the light. The length of exposure depends on the kind and disposition of the light, the character of the paper and the transparency of the material upon which the original drawing is made. The sensitive paper, after being properly exposed, is washed in water. The process thus observed develops an accurate reproduction of the original draw- ing known as a blue print in which the white lines are the shadows. Since blue print paper shrinks unevenly when drying, it is safer, when- ever possible, to use the measurements given by the figures on the blue print or in the specifications than to scale the blue print.
Elevation.— It is often necessary to represent different sides of an object in the working drawings. This is done by revolving the object and drawing the view of the side presented. The outline of a side and
3
SHOP WORK
its modifications is called an elevation. There are end elevations, side elevations, and top elevations. C, in Fig. 1, represents an end elevation ; B a side elevation ; looking down upon an( object develops the plan A or a top elevation.
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Y\G. 1. — Working Drawing.
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Lines. — Each line used in a drawing has a distinct and well defined meaning. The lines used in common practice are represented below in Fig. 2. A is a solid line and indicates the visible edge of an object. B is a solid line, usually light, broken only for figures, as 8'-6", and has arrow heads at its ends. These arrows indicate the measurements repre-
— senting 8'-6" (eight feet six inches). C -^ is a dotted line used to indicate hidden
- - parts. D is a dash line used in projecting H the elevations and plans. E is a dash-
and-dot line used as means of representing projection centers, revolving solids, etc. The lines are usually placed to the right
and below the working drawings of the object. Point out these various
lines as used in Fig. 1.
By
£ -
£
Fig. 2. — Drawing Lines.
Plan of Work. — Much time and material will be saved by a careful study of the plans and specifications before the work on any project is started. Before beginning tool work on the material, be fully advised as to what to do and how to go about it.
CHAPTER II
SHOP EQUIPMENT
(Representing the equipment items for the average well equipped school shop. See Fig. 3.)
BENCH TOOLS.
Planes
Jack
Smooth
Block Chisels (One inch; five-eighth
inch ; three-eighth inch ;
one-eighth inch).
Tang
Socket Back Saw Try Square Hammer Marking Gauge Rule T-Bevel Screw Driver Mallet Bench Hook Brush Drawing Board
INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT FOR STUDENT.
Cap Apron
Pocket Knife Pencil
Plane Iron (Furnished by De- partment)
GENERAL TOOLS.
Steel Square Level
Clamps
Draw Knife
Spoke Shave
Snips
Pincers
Pliers
Cornering Tool
Wrench
Glass Cutter
Nail Set
Awl
Dowel Plate
Dowel Sharpener
Sloyd Knife
Cabinet Scraper
Burnisher
Wing Divider
Bit Braces
Automatic Boring Tool
Bits
Saws
Miter Box
Rasps and Files
Abrasives
MACHINE EQUIPMENT.
Universal Saw Bench
Band Saw
Wet Tool Grinder
Jointer
Surfacer
Trimmer
Wood Lathes
Fig. 3. — ^Tool Kit.
THE WORK BENCH.
Bench Design and Construction. — In their etisentials, work benches differ only in size and in the methods used in fastening tlie parts to- gether. It is generally agreed that the most practicable work bench for manual training shops is a single (individual) bench, wholly in- closed, and equipped with individual lockers, tool locker, side and end vises, bench stop, bench dog and a tool recess. To insure absolute stability, the material used in constructing work benches should be clear, selected, hard wood — preferably maple. The rigidity of the bench is dependent on the design and construction of the frame. Therefore all joints should be doweled and glued and fastened with drav/ bolts. To prevent checking and warping, the top should be built of strips, securely fastened together, either by dovetailing or by dowels and glue, and firmly attached to the frame by means of lag screws. It is generally agreed that a top should be one and three-fourths inches or more in thickness as this will insure a solid working surface. In the construc- tion of tops, two distinct plans are followed. One plan is to build the top of strips, from three-fourths to one and three-fourths inches in thickness, and as much as two or three inches in width, laid flat. The other plan necessitates the use of strips from three-fourths to seven- eighths of an inch in thickness and stood on edge, thus exposing the
SHOP EQUIPMENT 7
edge grain for a working surface. The lockers should be nailed and glued. When completed, the work bench should be given an oil finish which will bring out the wood coloring and preserve the material. A coat of shellac should be applied occasionally to help preserve the wood. This bench, complete as described, presents a neat appearance in the room, is dust proof, and meets the demands of a modern shop. (See Fig. 4.)
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Fig. 4. — Typical Work Bench, BENCH EQUIPMENT.
Each work bench should be equipped with vises, bench stop, bench dog, bench hook, a drawing board, a T-square and a bench brush.
Vises. — Each bench should be equipped with rapid acting side and end vises to hold stock that is being worked upon. (See Fig. 5.) Bench Stop. — The bench stop is a device,
rectangular in shape, made of metal, and so de- signed as to be raised and lowered by a spring,
and when not in use remains level with the top
of the bench. It is used to hold stock that is
being surfaced. The stock is butted against the
stop when raised. Small extensions on the stop
sink into the end grain and hold the stock.
Fig. 5. — Rapid-Acting Vise.
Fig. 6. — Bench Stop.
Fig. 7. — Bench Dog.
SHOP WORK
Bench Dog. — The bench dog is .a metal device, rect- angular in shape, and is fastened in holes at regular in- tervals on the top of the bench. It is used in conjunction with the vises to hold the stock firm. (See Fig. 7.)
Bench Hook. — The bench hook is a tool designed to hold light stock and to prevent the scarring of the bench during the process of sawing. It consists of a board with a cross cleat screwed on each side at opposite ends. One cleat prevents the bench hook from slipping over the top of the bench and the other serves as a top for the piece being sawed.
Drawing Board, Triangles and T-Square. — A drawing board, 60- and 45-degree triangles, and a T-square are essential in every bench equipment. They are used in sketching, designing and in making work- ing drawings.
Bench Brush. — A bench brush
is indispensible as a means of
cleaning the top of the work bench.
Brushes of the duster type, with
FIG. s.-Bench Beush. handles, are the best for this class
of work. Methods of manufactur- ing brushes will be found in Chapter X, Part III, entitled "Facts About Brushes." (See Fig. 8.)
Bench Types, Equipment and Methods. — A common way to hold stock for sawing is illustrated in Fig. 9 where a board is placed on a pair of saw horses. This is a form of primitive bench still in general use for laying out and working up large stock. Fig. 10 shows a bench especially adapted for carpentry. It is long and provided with a wide skirting board in which are bored holes. A, for pins that help to steady long boards when planing. Fig. 11 is a bench used largely in school shops. It is provided with both side, A, and end, B, rapid acting vises ; also a benchstop, C, a bench dog, D, and a tool recess, E. In order to do efficient sawing, the stock must be held firm, and Fig. 9 shows how it is fastened on saw horses. A in Fig. 9 shows the correct posi- tion of a saw in relation to' the stock when ripping, and B shows the position of the saw when cross cutting. Fig. 10 shows a method of fastening a long board in a carpenter's bench and the position of the cross-cut saw, B. Fig. 11 shows how a board, F, may be held in a vise while cutting with a rip saw, G, and H shows the bench hook when used in connection with the back saw, I, while making a finished cut on a piece of stock, J,
SHOP EQUIPMENT
Fig. 9.— Saw Horses. Fig. 10.— Carpenter's Bench. Fig. 11.— School Shop Bench.
10 SHOP WORK
MEASURES.
Historic Measures. — Formerly measurements and weights were compared with objects of indefinite lengths and varying weights. King Charles I commanded that the length of his arm should define a yard. Again, in the year 1266, the weight of an English penny was referred to as the weight of thirty-two wheat grains taken from the middle of the ear. Of course the length of King Charles' arm could have been taken as a yard, but if the standard had been lost, it would have been impossible to re-establish the measurement with any degree of certainty. As for wheat grains, they shrink in weight and size and are very seldom the same at maturity.
Standard Yard. — It became apparent that standards which could be replaced at any time should be established. To do this, a commission was appointed, and as a result of a great deal of experimental work with a swinging pendulum, the unit of measure, known as the yard, was es- tablished. The standard yard is made of platinum with gold plugs sunk near each end. Across each plug is a fine line, drawn at right an- gles to the yard. The distance between these parallel lines, when the temperature of the platinum is at 62 degrees Fahrenheit, is the United States and the English Standard yard. As all metals, including plati- num, expand and contract in response to the changing temperature of the atmosphere, it is necessary to take the measurement at a positive degree of temperature. The original standard yard is preserved in England, and a number of exact reproductions are kept in the United States.
Metric Standard. — The metric standard, of which the metre is the unit, is the international standard, and is on file in the Weights and Measures Building in Paris. The ratio of the English Standard to the Metric Standard is as 36 is to 39.37.
Units. — Units are of two kinds — simple and derived. The yard is a simple unit ; the square yard a derived unit. The relation which a de- rived unit bears to the simple unit is called its dimension of the derived unit.
Linear Measure.— ¥ot convenience and as a means of more accur- ate measuring, the English standard yard is divided into feet, inches, etc. The following is the linear table developed from the yard.
12 inches ('0 1 foot (ft.) (')
3 feet 1 yard (yd.)
5| yards 1 rod (rd.)
40 rods 1 furlong (fur.)
8 furlongs 1 mile (mi.), or
1760 yards 1 mile
SHOP EQUIPMENT
11
Graduated Measuring Tools. — There are many tools in every day use which have graduations in inches stamped upon them. The steel square, rule, yard stick, try square, tape-line, etc., are the most common.
'#Ul ... 2 3 4 5 .
HAND TOOLS.
Steel Squxure. — The steel square is used in measuring lumber and laying off lengths as illustrated in Fig. 20. See Steel Square, Chapter I, Part III.
Try Square. — The try square is a contracted form of the square and is used extensively for testing and laying out work. In testing, the butt of the try-square is held against a surfaced side and the inside edge of the blade is brought to rest on the edge of the piece. If the blade touches ail the way across the block of wood, the piece is square (See Figs. 12 and 26.)
Fig. 12. — ^Tey Square.
Fig. 13. — Two Foot Folding Rule.
Rule. — The rule is made of wood, metal, ivory, or celluloid, ranging from six inches to five feet in length. The ordinary two-foot folding rule (Fig. 13) has the inch divided into sixteenths on one side and into eighths
on the other. It is a common practice to use the rule as a gauge for pencil lining as in Fig 21. The rule is held in one hand — ^the finger serving as a gauge or guide. A pencil held at the end of the rule is drawn along the surface of the board leaving a line parallel to the edge
Marking Gauge. — A marking gauge is a wood working tool used only to lay out work. It is used to draw lines parallel to a given edge and works best with the grain of the wood. The parts of the marking gauge are the head, bar, point, and thumbscrew. The bar has graduations on one side which permit thte laying-off of definite measurements. To draw a line parallel to a given edge is not a simple operation. In untrained hands, the point of the gauge has a tendency to follow the grain of the wood, and the resultant line may not be true. To get the best results, with a little practice, hold
Fig. 14. — Marking Gauge
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SHOP WORK
Fig. 15.— T-Bevel.
the head — tipped at a slight angle — squarely against the edge of the board thus giving cutting action. Mark very lightly at first until the line is established. Then, if necessary, a heavier line may be made with a second stroke. (See Figs. 25 and 14.)
T-Bevel. — It is necessary, in many classes of >\ construction, to work to given angles, or build up work to fit an angle. In either case, the tool most commonly used for this purpose is a T-Bevel. The bevel is similar in construction to a try- square, except that it has no graduations on the blade, and the blade is free so that it may be set at any angle and locked with a thumbscrew. These
angles and pitches are generally taken from the steel square. (See Fig.
22.) Bevels differ in size, form and material. Some are made entirely
of metals; others of a combination of hard wood and metal. (See
Fig. 15).
Level. — The level is a tool con- sisting either of a steel or of a wooden frame with a level glass inset. Levels are made in many lengths, and are sometimes equipped with a level glass on a protractor scale for special work. In case there are two glass insets — one set at an angle of 90 degrees to the other — the tool is called a plumb and level. Levels are used for testing perpendicular and horizontal sur- faces during the process of building construction, in installing machin- ery, and in many other branches of engineering work. (See Figs. 23 and 16).
Wing Divider or Compass. — The wing divider is a tool used to divide lines, draw arcs, or trans- pose measurements. It is some- times called a compass. For laying Fig. 17. — Wing Divider. off a definite measurement with a
pair of wing dividers, clamp one leg to the wing, approximately correct, and adjust it to the correct measurement by the spring and thumbscrew attachment. Fig. 24 clear- ly illustrates one method of establishing angles. These angles may be established on a block and transposed to the work by the use of the T- Bevel. (See Fig. 17).
Fig. 1G. — Plumb and Level.
SHOP EQUIPMENT
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Fig. 20. — Laying Off Lengths. Fig. 21. — Pencil Lining. Fig. 22. — Determining Angles and Pitches. Fig. 23. — Plumbing. Fig. 24. — Establishing Angles.
Fig. 25. — Establishing Lines. Fig. 26. — Testing With Try Square. 3
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SHOP WORK
Fig. is. — Sloyd Knife.
Fig. 19.— Awl.
Fig. 27. — Typical Hand Saw
Sloyd Knife. — A sloyd knife is an excellent tool for laying out, whit- tling, or any other light work. It is made of high carbon steel, properly tempered, and is handled. The knife
is used in conjunction with a try-square in most grades of fine work.
(See Fig. 18.) '
AiuL—The Awl, commonly called "Scratch
Awl", is a tool used to make fine lines, point off
measurements, and to start holes for small nails
or screws ; it is especially adapted to enlarging
holes in leather belting during the process of
lacing. (See Fig. 19.)
Saws. — Saws of different kinds occupy an important place among the tools used on hand-work of all kinds, and of these the hand saws are of the first importance. Hand saws are made from 14 to 28 inches
in length of blade. For all work of small and moderate size, the 20 or
22 inch saw shown in Fig. 27 is the most convenient. Hand saws are
of two kinds — rip saws and crosscut saws.
Ripsaw. — The ripsaw, as the name indicates, is for cutting with the grain, or lengthwise of the board to be sawed. For pine or other soft wood, a ripsaw having three teeth, or four points to the inch, may be used ; but for ordinary work, especially for hardwood, a ripsaw hav- ing six points, and a crosscut of nine points to the inch is recommended.
Use of Handsaw. — It is not the intention to suggest any work for practice in the use of the handsaw, as the correct use will be acquired gradually while cutting out stock for different articles required later. In general, it is well to say to the beginner : Do not press on or force the saw to cut too rapidly. Hold the saw firmly in the hand with the first finger pressed against the side of the handle and run it lightly and free- ly in the kerf, or cut. Take time to see that the line is followed exactly, thus avoiding all wasteful and crooked edges on the work, which must afterward be planed off. While sawing, be careful to stand in a position to saw the edge square with the surface of the board. This position may be tested from time to time by setting a try-square on the board and against the side of the saw, as shown at A, Fig. 9.
SHOP EQUIPMENT
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Fig. 28. — Back Saw.
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Fig. 20. — Use or Back Saw.
Backsaw. — The backsaw, shown in Fig. 28, is used on the bench, and is a bench saw, being used for light, fine work and for fitting and dove-tailing. The metal back is provided to stiffen the blade, thus making it possible to saw with exceptional accuracy. Backsaws are made in many sizes. A 10 or 12 inch backsaw is a con- venient size for general use.
Use of Backsaw. — ^When using the backsaw, hold tv'ith one hand only. Never, under any circumstances, press on the saw with the other hand, but run the saw lightly on the wood. Should any trouble be found in start- ing the cut, first draw the saw back- ward against the finger of the left hand, which hand grips the block of wood being sawed. This steadies the saw and holds it firmly to the correct place for beginning the cut. Much trouble is sometimes experienced by
the beginner in starting